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Unit 11: Theories of Social Change

production that human beings can increase their numbers; this growth then leads to new problems, Notes
which are solved by succeeding innovation.
Mechanisms of curvilinear and cyclic change: saturation and exhaustion
Models of one-directional change assume that change in a certain direction induces further change in
the same direction; models of curvilinear or cyclic change, on the other hand, assume that change in
a certain direction creates the conditions for change in another (perhaps even the opposite) direction.
More specifically, it is often assumed that growth has its limits and that in approaching these limits
the change curve will inevitably be bent. Ecological conditions such as the availability of natural
resources, for instance, can limit population, economic, and organizational growth.
Shorter-term cyclic changes are explained by comparable mechanisms. Some theories of the business
cycle, for example, assume that the economy is saturated periodically with capital goods; investments
become less necessary and less profitable, the rate of investments diminishes, and this downward
trend results in a recession. After a period of time, however, essential capital goods will have to be
replaced; investments are pushed up again, and a phase of economic expansion begins.
Cyclical theories of social change focus on the rise and fall of civilisations attempting to discover and
account for these patterns of growth and decay” – (Ian Robertson). Spengler, Toynbee and Sorokin
can be regarded as the Champions of this theory. Their ideas may be briefed here.
1. Spengler: ‘The Destiny of Civilisations’
Oswald Spengler, a German school teacher, in his book “The Decline of the West”-1918, pointed
out that the fate of civilisations was a matter of “destiny”. Each civilisation is like a biological
organism and has a similar life-cycle; birth, maturity old age and death.
After making a study of eight major civilisations, including the West, he said that the modern
Western Society is in the last stage, i.e. old age. He concluded that the Western Societies were
entering a period of decay – as evidenced by wars, conflicts, and social breakdown that heralded
their doom.
This theory is almost out of fashion today. His idea of ’destiny’ is hardly an adequate explanation
of social change. His biological analogy is also too unrealistic and his work is too mystical and
speculative.
2. Toynbee: ‘Challenge and Response’
Arnold Toynbee, a British historian with enough sociological insight has offered a somewhat
more promising a theory of social change. His famous book “A Study of History”-1946, a
multivolume work, draws on materials from 24 civilisations.
The key—concepts in Toynbee’s theory are those of “challenge and response”. “Every society
faces challenges-at first, challenges posed by the environment; later challenges from internal and
external enemies.
The nature of the responses determines the society’s fate. The achievements of a civilisation consist
of its successful responses to challenges; if it cannot mount an effective response, it dies”.-(Ian
Robertson).
Toynbee’s views are more optimistic than those of Spengler’s, for he does not believe that all
civilisations will inevitably decay. He has pointed out that history is a series of cycles of decay and
growth. But each new civilisation is able to learn from the mistakes and tomorrow from cultures
of others.
It is, therefore, possible for each new cycle to offer higher levels of achievement. Still he has not
explained why some societies are able to offer effective responses to their challenges while others
do not, or why a society should overcome one challenge but become a victim of another.
3. Sorokin: ‘Sensate’ and ‘Ideational’ Culture:
The Russian-American sociologist, Pitirim A Sorokin, in his book “Social and Culture Dynamics”-
1938, has offered another explanation of social change. His work has had a more lasting impact
on sociological thinking. Instead of viewing civilisations into terms of development and decline

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