Page 67 - DSOC201_SOCIAL_STRUCTURE_AND_SOCIAL_CHANGE_ENGLISH

Social Structure and Social Change

Notes 2.4 Summary

• The tribes in India are spread over the length and breadth of the country. They vary in
strength in different states from a few hundreds to several lakhs. The highest number of
tribals according to the 1991 census are found in Madhya Pradesh (15.4 million), followed by
Maharashtra (7.3 million), Orissa (7 million), Bihar (6.6 million) and Gujarat (6.1 million).
• Tribes are relatively isolated from larger cultural influences, have a relative cultural
homogeneity and a simple technology. They believe in spirits, magic and witchcraft. They
have their own taboos which prohibit ‘certain”actions that are punishable by the community,
by the supernatural, or by magical consequences.
• “A community occupying a common geographic area and having a similar language and
culture or beliefs and practices”.
• The basic characteristics of animism are: the beliefs that all animate and inanimate objects are
permanently or temporarily inhabited by spirits; all activities are caused by these spirits;
spirits have power over the lives of men; men can be possessed by spirits; and they can be
influenced by magic.
• Using language as a criterion for difference between a tribe and a caste, it is said that each
tribe has its own language but not a caste. But then there are tribes which do not have their
own languages but speak the dialect of one of the main Indian languages, as in South India.
Therefore, language also cannot be accepted as a criterion for distinction.
• Tribal government programmes have not significantly helped the tribals in raising their
economic status. The British policy had led to ruthless exploitation of the tribals in various
ways as it favoured the zamindars, landlords, moneylenders, forest contractors, and excise,
revenue and police officials.
• About 90 per cent of the tribals are engaged in cultivation and most of them are landless and
practise shifting cultivation. They need to be helped in adopting new methods of cultivation.
• The tribals are exploited by Christian missionaries. In several tribal, areas, mass conversion
to Christianity had taken place during the, British period. While the missionaries have been
pioneers in education and opened hospitals in tribal areas, they have also been responsible
for alienating the tribals from their culture. Christian missionaries are said to have many a
time instigated the tribals to revolt against the Indian government.
• Two instances of tribal exploitation are highlighted here to explain the cause of their
movements. At the time of independence, there existed a government order in Andhra Pradesh
according to which all land transactions had to be in favour of the tribals.
• They burned tribal huntments, criminally assaulted women, wounded and killed the tribals
and forced them to do bonded labour for them. In another incident, 21 non-tribals who were
allegedly stealing firewood from a forest were caught by the tribals and taken to their village
and kept imprisoned till the police rescued them.
• There is no serious widow problem in tribal societies. A widow is free to remarry. There are
some tribes where a widow marries her deceased husband’s younger brother (levirate
marriage). The bride-price custom has not elevated the status of women. It rather degrades
them to be treated in the manner of articles of property and a commodity to be bought and
sold. Divorce is permitted in many tribal societies. The procedure of divorce is also simple as
it consists of mutual consent, a formal ceremony, and paying back of the bride-price.
1. The community is hierarchically divided in four segments on the basis of ritual superiority
which resembles Hindu varna framework.
2. In some parts of India, the tribals have adopted some traits of Christianity also. Nagas,
Mizo, Santhals, Oraon, Munda, Kharia, etc., are some tribes in North East and North
West India on which we find marked imprint of Christianity. The evidence is provided
by micro-level studies of tribals made by Dutta Majumdar (1956), Sahay (1976),
Sachchidananda (1964) and Bose (1967).

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