Page 73 - DSOC201_SOCIAL_STRUCTURE_AND_SOCIAL_CHANGE_ENGLISH

Social Structure and Social Change

Notes divorce has not affected the sanctity of marriage because divorce is resorted to only as a last resort
(when marital obligations are not fulfilled) and not to remarry. Similarly, though widow remarriage
is sanctioned but such marriages are not practised on a wide scale. Mutual fidelity and devotion to
partner are still considered to be an essence of marriage. So long marriage is not performed for sex
gratification alone but for ‘living together’ and ‘begetting children’, marriage will continue to be a
sacrament for Hindus. Freedom in marriage (mate selection, etc.) does not destroy but rather confirms
the stability of marriage and purifies its practice. Kapadia has also said: “Marriage continues to be a
sacrament; only it is raised to an ethical plane.”
3.2 Forms of Marriage

In the Hindu society in the early period, eight modes of acquiring a wife were referred to, of which
four were considered proper and desirable (dharmya) which had the approval of the father/family,
and four were regarded as undesirable (adharmya) which did not have the approval of the father. The
proper marriages recognized by the Smritis were Brahma, Daiva, Arsha, and Prajapatya, while the
four undesirable marriages were Asura, Gandharva, Raksasa, and Paishacha.
In Brahma, the marriage is settled by the parents. A Brahmin is called to preside over the marriage
rites, and the daughter is given by her father to the groom along with some dowry of ornaments and
clothes, etc. In Daiva, the Brahmin who officiates over the ceremony is not paid any dakshina (gift) but
is given daughter, properly bejeweled and decorated. In Arsha, the bride’s father gets something
from the groom— say a pair of cattle or two—in exchange for his daughter. This is just for the sake of
the ceremony. In Prajapatya, though consent of parents is essential but no ceremony is performed. In
Asura, bride-price is given by the groom to the bride’s father. This is sort of an economic contract.
There is no limit of the amount given. In Gandharva, neither is the consent of parents necessary nor
are the rites or dowry essential. Only the will of the marrying parties is given importance. This
marriage is believed to spring from desire and has sex satisfaction as its chief purpose. In Raksasa,
marriage is by capture or abduction without obtaining the consent of the girl or her parents. This was
practised in times when group conflicts and tribal wars were very common. The victorious groups
used to carry away the girls of the conquered groups and keep them as ‘keeps’. In Paishacha, a woman
who is seduced when asleep or unconscious or when incapable of protecting herself is given the
social status of a wife.
Of these eight forms of marriages, Brahma is considered to be the best marriage where a girl is given
to a boy of merit in the same caste or in a caste of equal status. Both bride and groom in this marriage
are supposed to be grown-up persons competent to give consent.
Besides the above forms of marriage, the type of marriage that was usually practised by the Hindus
was monogamous, though we find some examples of polygynous marriages too in early and medieval
times.

The only example of polyandrous marriage is found in the Mahabharta—the marriage
of Drupadi with five Pandavas.

Polygyny

Polygyny is marriage of one male with more than one female, or what maybe called the ‘plurality of
wives’. Polygynous marriage may be unrestricted or conditional. In early Hindu society, it was the
second type of polygynous marriage that was practised. According to Apastamba Dharmsutra, a
man could marry again after ten years of his first marriage if his wife was barren, or he could marry
after thirteen or fourteen years if he had only daughters from his wife and wanted a son. Manu has
said that a man can supersede his first wife after eight years of his first marriage, if his wife is barren;
after ten years if children produced by his wife do not remain alive; after eleven years if his wife
produces only daughters; and immediately after the first marriage if his wife is quarrel-some,

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