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Unit 2: Basic Concepts Relating to Stratification

political inequalities may be found as stumbling blocks in other societies. The fact is that the poor Notes
are denied access to opportunities for their betterment or because the people are poor, they remain
incapable to compete with those who are not poor and are capable to have successful access to
opportunities and resources.
The Constitution of India, in the Directive Principles of State Policy states : “The State shall strive
to promote ... a social order in which justice social, economic, and political, shall inform all the
institutions, and in particular, shall secure “that the citizens, men and women equally have right
to an adequate means of livelihood”, and “that the operation of the economic system does not
result in the concentration of wealth and means of production to the common detriments.” The
question is : What is a nationally desirable “minimum level of living” ? Generally, the state is
supposed to provide facilities for education and health of the people, particularly for those who
cannot manage by themselves. For private consumption on food, clothes, shelter, water, electricity
and other such basic requirements, an individual is required to manage how to determine such a
minimum level of living and income for the same in rural and urban settings ?
Understanding the Poverty Line

V.M. Dandekar and Nilakantha Rath used energy requirement as a criterion for defining poverty.
The poverty line was defined as that expenditure level where the households, on an average, met
the requirement of 2,250 calories per capita per day. Based on this, Dandekar and Rath, in 1960-
61, suggested an annual per capita consumer expenditure of Rs. 170 for a diet adequate at least in
respect of calories. An annual per capita urban expenditure of Rs. 271 was considered equivalent
to an annual per capita rural expenditure of Rs. 170. An expenditure level came to be called as the
Poverty Line.
Besides economic standing or income level as the basis of poverty, there is also poverty caused by
given institutions. People are poor and suffer various social and economic handicaps/impediments.
In India, certain castes, communities, families and individuals are victims of institutional barriers
and handicaps. Landless agricultural workers and marginal peasants have suffered at the hands
of the big landowners and monied people.
Amartya Sen has dealt with the concept of poverty in varied situations and from different
standpoints. While realizing the value of the conventional measure of poverty in terms of levels of
income and “head count” of people, Sen observes that measurement of poverty can be done in two
distinct though in interrelated ways : (1) identification of the poor, and (2) aggregation of statistics
regarding the identified poor to derive an overall index of poverty. In these two exercises, deprivation
is seen in terms of low income of the people. Sen finds fault with both the “head count” and
“aggregation” exercises for measuring poverty. The example given by Sen makes his point quite
clear. He says : “Consider two persons 1 and 2 - person 1 has an income level somewhat lower
than that of 2. But 2 has a kidney problem and needs to use a dialysis machine which costs him a
lot, and he has also a much more impoverished life than person 1. Who is the poorer of the two,
person 1, because his income is lower, or person 2, because his capability set is more restricted.”
Descriptive and Policy Forms of Poverty
Based on this, poverty can be seen in both descriptive and policy forms. In the first view, the
identification of poverty is an acknowledgement of deprivation. We can know who are truly
deprived in society. In the second view, poverty is identified with a policy recommendation for its
alleviation. The first view makes the description primary and the policy conclusion derivative.
The second view simply identifies poverty with a policy recommendation, that is, something
needs to be done for poverty alleviation. A public action is brought in focus, and here the first
view becomes derivative. Sen, however, opines that the descriptive view should precede the
policy choice. Diagnose deprivation first, and then opt for alleviation ways and means thereupon.

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