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Linguistics

Notes 10.3.8 Criterion of Economy
Yet another governing principle is economy. The list of phonemes should be as small as possible. It
will be in accordance with the principle of economy if we recognize length /:/ as a phoneme in
English. Similarly some others prefer on the basis of economy to transcribe choose as /cu:z/ rather
then as /t /u : z/∫ . These examples are given to show that there is no unified theory of phonemics or
phonology and that there are some controversial questions that have not been resolved yet. Different
linguists use different symbols, consider the material at different times, thus giving rise to different
interpretations.
10.3.9 Neutralization

Lack of contrast between two phonemes in one particular environment is referred to as neutralization
of the contrast in the environment. This so-called neutralization of the distinction between two
phonemes is a more common phenomenon than free variation between phonemes in phonology. In
languages like German, Russian, Turkish, there is a phonemic distinction between voiced and voiceless
consonants in most positions of the word, but in the final positions voiced consonants do not occur.
Thus both the German words Rad (‘wheel’, ‘bicycle’) and Rat [‘council’, ‘advice’] are pronounced
alike namely /ra: t/. The normal orthography maintains the difference but in the phonology this
difference is neutralized. In English, examples of this kind are to be found in the allophones of /m/
and /n/ before f and /v/, in words like sympathy and infancy. The nasal consonant in each case is
likely to [m], that is to say, that /m/ and /n/ are not opposed, so that the sound could be allocated to
either the /m/ or the /n/ phoneme.
There are different ways of treating this kind of neutralization. Some scholars say, that it is the phoneme
/t/ that occurs in both Rad and Rat and account for the change of/d/to/t/ in morphonemics which
is an intermediate linguistic level between grammar and phonology. Others [e.g. the linguists of the
so called Prague-school] account for this phenomenon by recognizing in addition to the phonemes
the archiphonemes restricted to the positions of neutralization. They symbolize the archiphonemes
by the use of capital letters and would transcribe Rad and Rat as [ra:d] and [ra:t]
10.3.10 Free Variation
Non-significant linguistic variation between two or more linguistic forms is known as free variation.
We have an instance of free variation when two phonetically different units occur, but do not contrast:
that is to say, the substitution of one for the other does not produce, a different word, but merely a
different pronunciation of the same word; e.g [ai] and [i:] in the pronunciation of the word either as/
aiðe/or i: ðe/are not allophones [phonemic alternants], but are in free variation. Similarly/
ek n miks/and /i:k ncmiks/would produce only one word economics. The difference in the
pronunciations of either economics, etc. is ‘accidental’; it is not a part of the regular phonological
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structure of the language. Other examples of free variation are [w] and [hw] in the pronunciation of
the word wheel as/wi: l/or as/whi: l/. Similarly a word like fortnight may be pronounced either as/
fc: tnait/or fc:?. nait/[?] is the symbol for the ‘glottal stop’, a sound produced by first bringing the
vocal cords together and then releasing them so that there is a sudden escape of air. So [?] is a free
variant of/t/ at the end of an English syllable as [hw] is of [w] in the beginning of an English syllable.
10.4 Theories of Phonological Analysis

The analysis of an utterance into segemental and suprasegmental features is known as phonemic or
phonological analysis. There are several different theories of phonological analysis. Some of these
major theories are discussed below:
10.4.1 Structure and System

One approach is in terms of what are called structure and system. The phonological units (Phonemes
or sounds) of a language are grouped together to form the various systems and the arrangements of
these units in larger units such as syllables, feet, tone-group, sentence that form the structure of that

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