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Development of Education System

Notes across all income and social groups through these programs, although the task is not yet
finished. By contrast, as will be seen in the following chapter, secondary level enrollment
rates are far more unequal than those at the primary education level. There is a 40
percentage point gap between secondary enrollment in the highest (70 percent) and lowest
(30 percent) quintiles, a 20 percentage point gap between urban and rural enrollment, and
a 10 percentage point gap between enrollment of boys and girls. This raises significant
equity (and political) issues for the State.
(iv) Democratic Citizenship and Social Cohesion: Given India’s diversity, education has been
a central force for social cohesion, and for fostering a national identity and democratic
citizenship.16 India is the world’s biggest democracy, and is among the most diverse
nations in terms of languages, ethnicities, and religions. It has 14 official languages and
some 300 effectively spoken languages. Eighty-one percent of its population is Hindu; 13.4
percent Muslim; 2.3 percent Christian; 2 percent, Sikh; and 2 percent, other religions,
according to the Population Census of 2001. Scheduled tribes (ST) account for 8 percent of
its population and scheduled castes (SC), who are the most disadvantaged group in the
caste system, for 16 percent. Extending opportunity to secondary education for all would
level the playing field for individuals from different socioeconomic backgrounds (World
Bank, 2005a), and strengthen effective democratic participation.
Indeed, soon after Independence, India’s Secondary Education Commission (1952) stated,
“…in a democracy… (the) individual must form his own independent judgment on all
kinds of complicated social, economic and political issues and, to a large extent, decide his
own course of action… a democratic citizen should have the understanding and the
intellectual integrity to sift truth from falsehood, facts from propaganda and to reject the
dangerous appeal of fanaticism and prejudice. He must develop a scientific attitude of
mind to think objectively and base his conclusions on tested data… (and he must)
dispassionately examine… and courageously reject whatever arrests the forces of justice
and progress.” Seen in this way, “universal secondary education is no more a luxury but
a pre-condition for equitable social development, widening participation in India’s
democratic functioning” (Government of India, CABE Report, 2005).
Obviously, education per se does not contribute to democracy; education can be used for
indoctrination. However, education that emphasizes reasoning, tolerance, and respect for
diversity and social equity can build the essential foundation for democratic citizenship.
The experience of post-World War II Germany and Japan in advancing democracy and
peace testifies to the constructive and transformational power of education. Secondary
education in the humanities and social sciences raises an individual’s capacity for social
and political discourse and enhances participation in political and civic affairs (World
Bank, 2005a). Finally, while primary education takes place within relatively homogenous
communities, secondary schools typically enroll more students with greater diversity
given their larger catchment areas, which creates greater opportunities to foster citizenship
and communal tolerance.

Compared to India, East Asia and Latin America have much higher secondary
enrollment rates (70 and 82 percent, respectively). On average, these countries
have higher per capita incomes, a

(v) International Competitiveness: Beyond the purely domestic rationales for public investment
in secondary education, it is important to consider whether India’s development of
secondary education compared to other countries justifies additional public investment at
this level. Such a comparison is worthwhile as it highlights relative human capital
formation. The supply of skilled human capital is consistently cited as one of the key
variables in determining foreign direct investment in both manufacturing and services,
which in turn is a key factor in economic growth.

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