Page 328 - DENG504_LINGUISTICS

Linguistics

Notes specific transformations morphed into general rules (all the examples just mentioned being instances
of NP movement), which eventually changed into the single general rule of move alpha or Move.
Transformations actually come of two types: (i) the post-Deep structure kind mentioned above,
which are string or structure changing, and (ii) Generalized Transformations (GTs). Generalized
transformations were originally proposed in the earliest forms of generative grammar (e.g.,
Chomsky 1957). They take small structures, either atomic or generated by other rules, and combine
them. For example, the generalized transformation of embedding would take the kernel "Dave
said X" and the kernel "Dan likes smoking" and combine them into "Dave said Dan likes smoking."
GTs are thus structure building rather than structure changing. In the Extended Standard Theory
and government and binding theory, GTs were abandoned in favor of recursive phrase structure
rules. However, they are still present in tree-adjoining grammar as the Substitution and Adjunction
operations, and they have recently re-emerged in mainstream generative grammar in Minimalism,
as the operations Merge and Move.
In generative phonology, another form of transformation is the phonological rule, which describes
a mapping between an underlying representation (the phoneme) and the surface form that is
articulated during natural speech
Tree Diagram
Tree diagrams, also called "parse trees" and "concrete syntax trees," are used in linguistics and
formal grammar to divide a sentence into its separate parts while maintaining the structure of the
sentence. Parse trees resemble regular tree diagrams in structure; however, they differ in that their
function is very specific. A parse tree can quickly become complex. Though they may seem daunting
and time-consuming, knowing how to correctly use a parse tree will demonstrate a deep
understanding of the rules and placement of the parts of a sentence.
Ambiguous Sentences in English
Background Linguists use diagrams called trees to represent the groupings of words within
sentences. Here is a very simple example:
S

NP VP

D N V NP

These dogs chased D N

those cats

The tree diagram shows that in the sentence These dogs chased those cats. these is most closely
related to dogs, those most closely related to cats etc.
The abbreviations S, NP, VP, D, N, and V stand for different types of words or groups
of words. These abbreviations and a few others we will use in this problem are spelled out here:
S : sentence
NP : noun phrase
VP : verb phrase
PP : prepositional phrase
N : noun
V : verb

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