Page 35 - DLIS401_METHODOLOGY_OF_RESEARCH_AND_STATISTICAL_TECHNIQUES

Methodology of Research and Statistical Techniques

Notes (individual-level) conception of the variables that are considered to have caused something
broader (societal), (e.g., Durkheim does not explain any individual’s suicide, but only the
suicide-rates among certain categories of people).

(c) Focus and Time of Research
The focus in a research can be on: (1) characteristics of states of being (e.g., sex of an individual,
number of employees in a company); (2) orientations of attitudes (e.g., prejudice of an individual;
the political orientation of a group), and (3) actions, what was done (e.g., voting behavior of
individuals; the riot participation of a group).
Research, considered in its time dimension, can be (1) cross-sectional at any given point in
time; (2) longitudinal over a period of time to trace change or stability (e.g., panel study of the
same people after two elections to see if and how their voting behavior changed); (3) quasi-
longitudinal by investigating certain variables in a cross-sectional study (e.g., a comparison of
older and younger people indicates a process over time).
2. Conceptualization and Measurement

(a) Conceptualization
Theories are comprised of statements that indicate relationships between constructs, i.e., particular
conceptions which are labeled by a term. These constructs should be conceptualized, i.e., the
meaning of the constructs must be specified, as a working agreement, into clearly defined
concepts (which are still mental images). Then we can operationalize those concepts, i.e.,
specify indicators that measure the concept in terms of its different dimensions (e.g., the action
or the ideas that are referred to by the concept of crime). Note that this process reminds us
that terms should not be reified into things.
Concepts, then, should be defined in two steps— first, a nominal definition of the concept
gives a more precise meaning to the term, but it cannot yet be observed as such, therefore,
second, the operational definition of the concept spells out how it is to be measured or observed,
so that the actual measurement can be undertaken. Example: theoretical construct = social control;
nominal definition of concept = social control as the individual’s bonding to society; operational
definition = attachment to primary institutions, which can be high or low; measure = years of
education. Note that these specifications are absolutely necessary in explanatory research.

(b) Measurement Quality

Measurements should best be precise, and reliable and valid. Reliability and validity refer to
the relationship between measure and concept!

1. Reliability: does the replication of a measurement technique lead to the same results?
This refers to the consistency of the measurement techniques. Reliability can be achieved
through the test-retest method, i.e., the replication of a method on a phenomenon that could not,
or should not, have changed, or of which the amount of expected change is known (e.g., asking
for age, and asking again the next year, should lead to a difference of one year). Another
technique for reliability check is the split-half method, e.g., if you have ten indicators for a
phenomenon, then use five randomly chosen in one questionnaire, and the other five in the
other one, apply to two random-samples, then their should be no differences in the distribution
of attributes on the measured variable between the two. Other reliability techniques are the
use of established methods, and training of researchers.
2. Validity: does the method of measurement measure what one wants to measure?

This means different things: first, face validity is based on common-sense knowledge (e.g., the
number of children is an invalid measure of religiosity); second, criterion or predictive validity

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