Page 34 - DLIS401_METHODOLOGY_OF_RESEARCH_AND_STATISTICAL_TECHNIQUES

Unit 2: Research Design

interests, which usually involves a breaking through of the empirical cycle, shifting from Notes
induction to deduction (e.g. , what is so peculiar about drug-abuse among young black females);
(3) applied research, for policy purposes (e.g. , market research).
The basic model of research is: (1) theory, theoretical proposition, (2) conceptualization of the
theoretical constructs, and formalization of a model, the relationships between variables; (3)
operationalization of the variables stated in the theory, so they can be measured (indicators)
and (4) observation, the actual measurements.

The inquiry can be deductive, from theoretical logic to empirical observations (theory-testing),
or inductive, from empirical observations to the search for theoretical understanding of the
findings of the observations (theory-construction). (Note that, basically, it’s always both, cf.
Feyerabend, which is more than just an alternation, it’s rather an mutual constituency). The
wheel of science.
• Deduction: The logical derivation of testable hypotheses from a general theory.

• Induction: The development of general principles on the basis of specific observations.

2.1.2 Research Design, Measurement and Operationalization
1. Research Design
Research design concerns the planning of scientific inquiry, the development of a strategy for
finding out something. This involves: theory, conceptualization, formalization, operationalization
of variables, preparations for observation (choice of methods, selection of units of observation
and analysis), observation, data analysis, report (and back to theory).

(a) Purposes of Research

The purposes of research are basically three-fold:
1. Exploration: to investigate something new of which little is known, guided by a general
interest, or to prepare a further study, or to develop methods. The disadvantage of most
exploratory studies is their lack of representativeness and the fact that their findings are
very rudimentary.
2. Description: events or actions are observed and reported (what is going on?). Of course,
the quality of the observations is crucial, as well as the issue of generalizability.
3. Explanation: this is research into causation (why is something going on?). This is extremely
valuable research of course, but note that most research involves some of all three types.

(b) Units of Analysis
The units of analysis refer to the what or who which is being studied (people, nation-states).
Units of analysis can be (and often are) the units of observation, but not necessarily (e.g., we
ask questions to individuals about their attitudes towards abortion, but analyze the religious
categories they belong to).
Units of analysis in social-science research typically include individuals within a certain area
at a given period of time; groups (e.g., the family); organizations (e.g., social movements);
products of human action (e.g., newspapers in a content-analysis); and so on.
Two common problems are— the ecological fallacy, i.e., making assertions about individuals
on the basis of findings about groups or aggregations (e.g., higher crime rates in cities with
a high percentage of blacks are attributed to blacks, but could actually be committed by the
whites in those areas); and reductionism, i.e., illegitimate inferences from a too limited, narrow

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