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Unit 3: Research Methods, Techniques and Tools
In practice, the accumulation of evidence for or against any particular theory involves planned Notes
research designs for the collection of empirical data, and academic rigor plays a large part of
judging the merits of research design. Several typographies for such designs have been suggested,
one of the most popular of which comes from Campbell and Stanley (1963). They are responsible
for popularizing the widely cited distinction among pre-experimental, experimental, and quasi-
experimental designs and are staunch advocates of the central role of randomized experiments
in educational research.
Empirical Cycle
Observation
Evaluation Induction
Testing Deduction
A.D. de Groot’s empirical cycle:
Observation: The collecting and organisation of empirical facts; Forming hypotheses.
Induction: Formulating hypotheses.
Deduction: Deducting consequenses of hypotheses as testable predictions.
Testing: Testing the hypotheses with new empirical material.
Evaluation: Evaluating the outcome of testing.
Primary Research
Primary research (also called field research) involves the collection of data that does not
already exist. This can be through numerous forms, including questionnaires and telephone
interviews amongst others. This information may be collected in things like questionnaires,
magazines, and Interviews.
The term is widely used in market research and competitive intelligence.
• May be very expensive because many people need to be confronted.
• By the time the research is complete it may be out of date.
• People may have to be employed or avoid their primary duties for the duration of the
research.
• People may not reply if emails or letters are used.
Secondary Research
Secondary research (also known as desk research) involves the summary, collation and/or
synthesis of existing research rather than primary research, where data is collected from, for
example, research subjects or experiments.
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