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Introduction to Artificial Intelligence & Expert Systems

Notes grandmother(X, Y):- mother(X, Z), parent(Z, Y). /* Rule 4 */
grandparent(X, Y):- parent(X, Z), parent(Z, Y). /* Rule 5 */
yeye(X, Y):- father(X, Z), father(Z, Y). /* Rule 6 */
mama(X, Y):- mother(X, Z), father(Z, Y). /* Rule 7 */
gunggung(X, Y):- father(X, Z), mother(Z, Y). /* Rule 8 */
popo(X, Y):- mother(X, Z), mother(Z, Y). /* Rule 9 */

Take Rule 3 as an example. It means that “grandfather(X, Y)” is true if both “father(X,
Z)” and “parent(Z, X)” are true. The comma between the two conditions can be considered as
a logical-AND operator.

You may see that both Rules 1 and 2 start with “parent(X, Y)”. When will “parent(X, Y)”
be true? The answer is any one of these two rules is true. This means that “parent(X, Y)” is
true when “father(X, Y)” is true, or “mother(X, Y)” is true.

3.1.5 Statistics

Statistics is the study of the collection, organization, analysis, interpretation, and presentation
of data. It deals with all aspects of this, including the planning of data collection in terms of the
design of surveys and experiments. The word statistics, when referring to the scientific discipline,
is singular, as in “Statistics is an art.” This should not be confused with the word statistic,
referring to a quantity (such as mean or median) calculated from a set of data, whose plural is
statistics.
Some consider statistics a mathematical body of science that pertains to the collection, analysis,
interpretation or explanation, and presentation of data, while others consider it a branch of
mathematics concerned with collecting and interpreting data. Because of its empirical roots and
its focus on applications, statistics is usually considered a distinct mathematical science rather
than a branch of mathematics.

Notes Much of statistics is non-mathematical: ensuring that data collection is undertaken
in a way that produces valid conclusions; coding and archiving data so that information is
retained and made useful for international comparisons of official statistics; reporting of
results and summarised data (tables and graphs) in ways comprehensible to those who
must use them; implementing procedures that ensure the privacy of census information.
Statisticians improve data quality by developing specific experiment designs and survey samples.
Statistics itself also provides tools for prediction and forecasting the use of data and statistical
models. Statistics is applicable to a wide variety of academic disciplines, including natural and
social sciences, government, and business. Statistical consultants can help organizations and
companies that don’t have in-house expertise relevant to their particular questions.

3.1.6 Neural Networks

The term “neural network” was traditionally used to refer to a network or circuit of biological
neurons. The modern usage of the term often refers to artificial neural networks, which are
composed of artificial neurons or nodes. Thus, the term may refer to either biological neural
networks, made up of real biological neurons, or artificial neural networks, for solving artificial
intelligence problems.

Neural networks are a form of multiprocessor computer system, with
simple processing elements
a high degree of interconnection

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