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Unit 7: Training and Development

According to researchers (Harrison, 1994; Harris and Moran, 1991) training for expatriate Notes
managers must include following phases:
Self-Awareness: The self-awareness phase should be designed to provide the trainees with
insight into their receptiveness and propensity for successful cross-cultural assignments. There
are several psychological instruments available for managers and their family members, including
the Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory (Kelley & Meyers, 1992) and the Intercultural
Sensitivity Inventory (Bhawuk & Brislin, 1992). After completing several psychological
instruments, it may become clear to the manager (or to his/her supervisor) that overseas
assignment may not be appropriate. Jordan and Cartwright (1998) believe successful expatriate
managers have the following attributes:
1. Emotional stability
2. Self-confidence Intellectual capacity

3. Openness to new experiences
4. Relational ability
5. Linguistic skill
6. Cultural sensitivity

7. Ability to handle stress
General Awareness of Cultural Differences: The general awareness of cultural differences phase
of training is now supported by an impressive body of literature. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck
(1961), Hofstede (1980, 1993), and Trompenaars (1998) provide insight into how cultures differ
on various dimensions. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck (1961) describe six different cultural
dimensions:
1. How people view humanity (good, evil, mixed)
2. How people see nature (domination, harmony, subjugation)

3. How people approach interpersonal relationships (individualistic, group, hierarchical)
4. How people view activity and achievement (being, controlling, doing)
5. How people view time (past, present, future)
6. How people view space (private, public, mixed)

Bennett (1986) believes by educating individuals to recognise their own values, they can better
identify contrasts with other cultures and then apply these insights gained to improving cross-
cultural interactions. Harrison (1994) adds, “To appreciate the differences in other cultures,
trainees must understand their own culture.”
Specific Knowledge Acquisition: The specific knowledge acquisition phase includes area studies,
language studies, and host attitude awareness. Area studies, covering history, political system,
economy, demographics, and climate are assumed to increase empathy, which will modify
behaviour in cross-cultural interactions (Tung, 1981). Researchers (Copeland & Griggs, 1985;
Harris & Moran, 1991) have found knowledge of the host country’s language to be essential.
Interestingly, an individual’s level of confidence and willingness to use the host language is a
greater influence on success than his or her actual level of fluency (Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985).
Therefore, building the trainee’s confidence and willingness is critical. In this phase, it is important
for the trainee to become aware of the attitudes he or she will face in the host country. Work-
related attitudes such as productivity, dependability, pace, frequency of breaks, meeting
interruptions, and deadlines vary greatly from culture to culture. Trainees must also be alerted
to possible negative attitudes toward nationality, race, or gender.

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