Page 100 - DPOL201_WESTERN_POLITICAL_THOUGHT_ENGLISH

Western Political Thought

Notes Human will, in Hobbes’ philosophy, did not imply anything spiritual or transcendental but was
related to the natural needs of the body. He mentioned a long list of passions, but the special
emphasis was on fear, in particular the fear of death, and on the universal and perfectly justified
quest for power. In contrast to classical philosophers, Hobbes did not assign any positive or
higher aim to life. There “is no Summum Bonum (Greatest Good) as is spoken of in the Books of
the Old Morall Philosophers”. Since individuals would like to do their own thing, pursue their
own desires, there was no ultimate human good as a criterion of ethical judgement. One could
expect, in life, at most only “felicity”, which was continual prosperity. “For there is no such thing
as perpetual tranquillity of mind, while we live here; because Life itselfe is but Motion, and can
never be without Desire, nor without Feare, no more than without Sense”.
Hobbes contended that life was nothing but a perpetual and relentless desire and pursuit of
power, a prerequisite for felicity. He pointed out that one ought to recognize a “general inclination
of all mankind, a perpetual and restless desire for Power after power that ceaseth only in Death”.
Consequently, individuals were averse to death, especially accidental death, for it marked the end
of attainment of all felicity. Power was sought for it represented a means of acquiring those things
that made life worthwhile and contented, called felicity. The fact that all individuals (and not
merely the political elite) sought power distinguished Hobbes from Machiavelli.
Another significant facet of Hobbes’ perception that set him apart from both ancient and medieval
philosophers was his belief in the equality of men, the fact that men were equal in physical power,
and faculties of mind. By equality, Hobbes meant equal ability and the equal hope of attaining the
ends individuals aspired for. The physically weak may achieve by cunning what the strong could
accomplish through force. Hobbes accepted differences in physical or natural endowments. Hobbes
also saw human beings as active creatures with a “will”. Human beings were endowed with both
reason and passions (reason being passive while passions active). Differences in passions created
differences in wits, with a desire to excel over others. Since individuals were equal and active,
those who succeeded would have more enemies and competitors, and face maximum danger.
Hobbes observed that human beings stood nothing to gain from the company of others, except
pain. A permanent rivalry existed between human beings for honour, riches and authority, with
life as nothing but potential warfare, a war of everyone against the others.
State of Nature
Having described the natural person, Hobbes proceeded to portray the state of nature. In the light
of bleak and pessimistic human nature, the picturization of the state of nature was gloomy and
sordid. Hobbes saw human relationships as those of mutual suspicion and hostility. The only rule
that individuals acknowledged was that one would take if one had the power, and retain as long
as one could. In this “ill condition”, there was no law, no justice, no notion of right and wrong,
with only force and fraud as the two cardinal virtues. Justice and injustice “relate to man in
society, not in solitude”. Daniel Defoe’s (1660-1731) Robinson Crusoe (1719) graphically captured the
Hobbesian depiction of an atomistic asocial individual. Society was nut natural; in fact, individuals
had to be educated in order to live in one. The state of nature prohibited the possibilities of ensuring
commodious living or civilized pursuits that made life worthwhile and meaningful, for:
In such condition, there is no place for Industry, because the fruit thereof is uncertain:
and consequently no Culture of the Earth; no Navigation, nor use of the commodities
that may be imported by Sea; no commodious Building; no Instruments of moving
such things as require much force, no Knowledge of the face of the earth; no account
of Time, no Arts; no Letters; no Society; and which is worst of all, continuall feare, and
danger of violent death; And the life of man, solitary, poore, nasty, brutish and short.
The principal cause of conflict was within the nature of man. Competition, diffidence and glory were
the three reasons that were responsible for quarrel and rivalry among individuals. “The first maketh
men invade for Gain; the second, for Safety; and the third, for Reputation. The first use Violence, to
make themselves Masters of other men’s persons ... the second to defend them; the third, for trifles ...”.

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