Page 212 - DCAP310_INTRODUCTION_TO_ARTIFICIAL_INTELLIGENCE_AND_EXPERT_SYSTEMS

Introduction to Artificial Intelligence & Expert Systems

Notes down to only one or two entries. Hash functions are also used to build caches for large data sets
stored in slow media. A cache is generally simpler than a hashed search table, since any collision
can be resolved by discarding or writing back the older of the two colliding items. This is also
used in file comparison.

11.2.4 Conceptual Indexing

Teaching for conceptual change primarily involves – uncovering students’ preconceptions about
a particular topic or phenomenon and using various techniques to help students change their
conceptual framework. The vast majority of research on conceptual change instruction has been
confined to science education, while research in other subject areas has been scarce. However,
outside of school, students develop strong (mis)conceptions about a wide range of concepts
related to non-scientific domains, such as how the government works, principles of economics,
the utility of mathematics, the reasons for the Civil Rights movement, the nature of the writing
process, and the purpose of the electoral college. Conceptual change instruction can help students
overcome misconceptions and learn difficult concepts in all subject areas.
Conceptual change is not only relevant to teaching in the content areas, but it is also applicable
to the professional development of teachers and administrators.

Example: As constructivist approaches to teaching gain popularity, the role of the teacher
changes. Teachers must learn different instructional strategies, but they must also reconceptualize
or change their conception about the meaning of teaching. This change implies conceiving of
teaching as facilitating, rather than managing learning and changing roles from the “sage on the
stage” to a “guide on the side.” Likewise, a shift has occurred for school media specialists
(formerly known as librarians). Their role in the school has changed from being “keeper of the
books” to “collaborative planner,” working in partnership with teachers, school administrators
and the community.

Conceptual change is of particular relevance in business and professional communities.
Companies often restructure, changing their business strategies and processes to remain
competitive and responsive to the needs of their customers. The advancement of technology has
also initiated a trend in the restructuring of industrialization. Lansky states that technological
innovation, globalization, and industrial relocation are leaving only two general types of paid
work in advanced industrialized countries: technical jobs, which center on problem-solving,
and interpersonal jobs, which require a “human touch”. Lansky (2000) observes that the
contemporary work force can be divided into three categories. The first is “highly skilled and
highly paid technicians [and] providers of interpersonal services”. The second group consists of
“lower paid technicians and lower paid providers of interpersonal services”. The third group
comprises workers “without the education, skills or connections needed to become technicians
or interpersonal workers” (Lansky, 2000). Due to this trend toward “upskilling,” the first and
second groups benefit from the changes in industry; the third group faces the possibility of
unemployment.
Conceptual change is not limited to the company level; it can also occur at the level of an entire
industry. Hospitals are now known as “medical centers.” Those who receive care in such facilities
are now termed “clients” rather than “patients.” Banks have been replaced by “financial centers.”
Employees of organizations are now considered “associates.” Companies are beginning to
view themselves as “learning organizations” instead of “corporations.” These are not simply
changes in terminology; the changes signify conceptual change.
Restructuring in companies or entire industries often requires employees to re-conceptualize
their roles and responsibilities and change the way they perform their jobs. Teaching new job

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