Page 141 - DMGT519_Conflict Management and Negotiation Skills

Unit 7: Perception and Communication

2. Instrumental, or operant, conditioning: Behaviors or attitudes that are followed by positive Notes
consequences are reinforced and are more likely to be repeated than are behaviors and
attitudes that are followed by negative consequences.
For example, People agree with your opinion.
3. Observational learning: Children watch the behavior of people around them and imitate
what they see. For example, if a young girl hears her mother denounce all elected officials
as crooks, she may repeat that opinion in class the next day. Whether she continues to
repeat that opinion depends on the responses of her classmates, teacher, and parents. That
is, observations determine the responses we learn, but reinforcement determines the
responses we express.

7.3.3 Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Stresses attitude change – and that behaviors can determine attitudes.
1. Cognition = individuals perception of own attitudes, beliefs, behaviors. Cognitive dissonance =
feelings of tension that arise when one is simultaneously aware of two inconsistent
cognitions. For example, when we act contrary to our attitudes; or, when we make a
decision favoring one alternative despite reasons favoring another.
2. Consistency theories hypothesize that, should inconsistencies develop among cognitions,
people are motivated to restore harmony.

3. Key propositions of dissonance theory:
1. Dissonance theory says relationships among two cognitions can be either consonant,
dissonant, irrelevant

2. Cognitive dissonance is a noxious state. It produces unpleasant physical arousal.
3. Individual will attempt to reduce or eliminate dissonance – and will try to avoid
things that increase dissonance.

For example, selective observation.
4. Cognitive dissonance can be reduced or eliminated only by (a) adding new
cognitions, or (b) changing existing ones.

For example, can change our minds. Decide we were wrong.
For example, can “make up” information, as in the “When prophesy fails” example.
For example, we may seek new information that can restore consonance.
For example, try to discredit source of dissonance in some way – either by making
up info or seeking counter-evidence.

Sources of Dissonance

1. Informational inconsistency. Receive information that contradicts what they already know
or believe.

For example, suppose you believe George Bush did not know about Iran-Contra - and
then suppose Oliver North testified that he was the mastermind behind it. (Real life
example: some Iranians are said to believe George Bush did head up Iran-Contra, since he
used to be head of the CIA and they think the CIA runs the country.)

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